Confucianism: The Orthodox Ideology in Feudal China
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism constitute the essence of the traditional Chinese culture. The interrelationship among the three has been marked by both contention and complementation in history, with Confucianism playing a more dominant role.
Confucius, founder of Confucianism, stresses “ren” (benevolence, love), and “li” (rites, referring to respect for the system of social hier- archy). Mencius advocated a policy of “benign government”. Confu- cianism became the orthodox ideology in feudal China, and in the long course of history, it drew on Taoism and Buddhism. By the 12th cen- tury, Confucianism had evolved into a rigid philosophy that calls for “preserving heavenly laws and repressing human desires”.
Taoism: The Philosophy of Inaction and Relativism
Taoism was created by Laozi (around the 6th century BC), whose masterpiece is the Classic of the Virtue of the Tao . He believes the dia- lectical philosophy of inaction. As a Chinese saying goes, “Fortune lies in misfortune and vice versa. ” Zhuangzi, the main advocate of Taoism during the Warring States Period, founded a relativism calling for the absolute freedom of the subjective mind.
Taoism weighs as much as Confucianism in Chinese culture, while Confucianism plays a more obvious role in Chinese politics. The pro- foundness of Taoism theories provides a headspring for almost all the other Chinese philosophy traditions. Taoism influences in Chinese art, painting, literature, and carving are more important than any other phi- losophy in China. It is fair to say that traditional Chinese art is the art of Taoism. Meanwhile, Taoism supplies an alternative choice for Chinese intellectuals other than Confucian ideal of actively involving in the soci- ety.
Buddhism: From India to Chinese Localization
Buddhism was created by Sakyamuni in India around the 6th cen- tury BC. Believing that human life is miserable and spiritual emancipa- tion is the highest goal to seek, it was introduced into China through Central Asia around the time Jesus Christ was born. After a few centu- ries of assimilation, Buddhism evolved into many sects in the Sui and the Tang dynasties and became localized. That was also a process when the indigenous culture of Confucianism and Taoism were blended with Buddhism. Chinese Buddhism has great influence on traditional ideolo- gy and art. It has developed several schools distinct from the originating Indian schools. The most prominent examples with philosophical merit are Zen, Sanlun, Tiantai, and Huayan. They investigate consciousness, levels of truth, whether reality is ultimately empty, and how enlighten- ment is to be achieved.
Zhu Xi and the Development of Neo - Confucianism
Zhu Xi (1130— 1200), also known as Zhuzi, was a major Song Dy- nasty philosopher and commentator. He was a Confucian scholar who became one of the most significant Neo-Confucians in China.
Zhu Xi was born in what is today Youxi County in Fujian Province, where his father was serving as an official, but his home town is con- sidered to be Wuyuan, now in the northeast corner of Jiangxi Province, but then part of Huizhou, a district just south of Huangshan. He spent many years teaching in the Wuyi Mountains on the modern Fujian and Jiangxi Province border, and is also particularly associated with two Confucian academies, the Yuelu Academy in Changsha and one at his retreat, the White Deer Grotto in Lushan northwest of Poyang Lake.
Zhu Xi considered the earlier philosopher Xunzi to be a heretic for departing from Confucius’ beliefs about innate human goodness. Zhu Xi contributed to Confucian philosophy by articulating what was to become the orthodox Confucian interpretation of a number of beliefs in Taoism and Buddhism. He adapted some ideas from these competing religions into his form of Confucianism. He argued that all things are brought into being by two universal elements vital force, and law or tional principle. The source and sum of li is the Taiji, which means Great Ultimate. According to Zhu Xi, the Tai Ji causes qi to move and change in the physical world, resulting in the division of the world into the two energy modes (Yin and Yang) and the five elements (fire, water, wood, metal, and earth). He did not hold to traditional ideas of God or Heaven (Tian). He did not promote the worship of spirits and offerings to im- ages. He disagreed that the souls of ancestors existed, believing instead that ancestor worship is a form of remembrance and gratitude.
Zhu Xi and his fellow scholars codified what is now considered the Confucian canon of classics: “the Four Books”, consisting of the Great Learning, the Analects of Confucius, the Mencius, and the Doctrine of the Mean.
During the Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi’s teachings were considered to be unorthodox. As a result, his ideas led to his being dismissed several times from official positions. But after he died, his teachings were to dominate Confucianism. Life Magazine ranked Zhu Xi as the forty-fifth most important person in the last millennium. He was also influential in Japan, where his followers were called the Shushigaku school.
Harmony Between Man and Nature: A Distinct Chinese Philosophy
As early as in 2500 BC Chinese began astronomical observation and geographical survey, and gradually formed a world outlook of an “inte- gration of the universe and humanity” (harmony of man with nature).
Chinese philosophy, by contrast with Western thinking, has from the start emphasized immanence and unity. Western dualism led to an opposition between man and nature, but Chinese monism led to a har- mony between the two. Most of Chinese philosophers share this unique view no matter how different their views may be.
The theory that man is an integral part of nature first originated in the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States periods. With the elabo- ration of Dong Zhongshu in the Han Dynasty, the theory was summa- rized and clearly presented by the Confucian School of idealists in the Song and Ming dynasties. The theory, as a basic notion in Chinese phi- losophy, insists that the politics and ethics of human beings are a direct reflection of nature.
According to the famous scholar, Ji Xianlin, each of the four Chi- nese characters respectively means nature, human beings, mutual understanding and friendship, and oneness. While Westerners always try to conquer and plunder from nature with its increasingly highly advanced technologies, the ancient Eastern sages admonish that human beings are just a small part of, and closely linked to the world. These thoughts are universal in Chinese culture. For instance, traditional Chi- nese tea sets always have three parts: the lid, the cup, and the tray, respectively symbolizing heaven, people, and earth. In another example, Chinese stress reunions of the family, and consider harmonious family relationships a great fulfillment and pleasure in life, while the westerners are generally more individual, independent, and adventurous.
The proposition of is also a Chinese idiom. The character has different meanings in various schools of Chinese philosophy, and can be summarized into three categories: the highest governance, nature in general, and the highest principles.
Human beings are an integral part of nature and a component of heaven and earth, or nature. Thus, human beings should also obey the laws of nature. The theory also holds the view that ethical principles are consistent with natural rules. The ideal of life is to attain harmony between man and nature.
In ancient China, there are three typical kinds of theories concern- ing relationships between man and nature: Zhuangzi’s theory of con- forming to nature, Xunzi’s theory of transforming nature, and the har- monious relationship between humans and nature advocated in Book of Changes. Since the Western notion of “conquering nature” spread to China, Xunzi’s positive theory, by contrast with Zhuangzi’s passive at- titude, has been highly valued.
However, emphasis on “conquering nature” may also lead to jeop- ardizing nature and destroying basic living conditions for human beings. On the other hand, the idea that advocates harmony of man with nature is of great significance on keeping an ecological balance. The the- ory is well balanced with emphasis both on alternating and complying with nature. People should neither subdue, nor destroy nature, and the relationship between the two should be coordinated and harmonized.
The reflection of the philosophic concept, “integration of the uni- verse and humanity”, can be found on Chinese aesthetics and almost all other fields, such as painting, architecture, medicine, drama, chess and music.
