Ancient Classics: Pillars of Chinese Literature
China has a wealth of classic literature, both poetry and prose, dating from the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (770—256 BC) and including the classics, whose compilation is attributed to Confucius.
Among the most important classics in Chinese literature are I Ching or Yi Jing (Book of Changes), a manual of divination based on eight trigrams attributed to the mythical emperor Fu Xi. (By Confucius' time these eight trigrams had been multiplied to sixty-four hexagrams.) The I Ching is still used by adherents of folk religion. The Shi Jing (Book of Songs) is made up of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs; 74 minor festal songs, traditionally sung at court festivities; 31 major festal songs, sung at more solemn court ceremonies; and 40 hymns and eulogies, sung at sacrifices to gods and ancestral spirits of the royal house. The Shu Jing (Classic/Book of History) is a collection of documents and speeches alleged to have been written by rulers and officials of the early Zhou period and before. It contains the best examples of early Chinese prose. The Li Ji (Record/Book of Rites), a restoration of the original Li Jing (Classic of Rites), lost in the third century BC, describes ancient rites and court ceremonies. The Chun Qiu (Spring and Autumn Annals) is a historical record of the principality of Lu, Confucius’ native state, from 722 to 481 BC. It is a log of concise entries probably compiled by Confucius himself. The Lun Yu (Analects of Confucius) is a book of pithy sayings attributed to Confucius and recorded by his disciples.
In the realm of martial classics, the Art of War by Sun Tzu in the 6th century BC marks the first milestone in the tradition of Chinese military treatises written in following ages, such as the Wu Jing Zong Yao (1044 AD). Furthermore, the Art of War is perhaps the first to outline guidelines for effective international diplomacy.
Historical and Classical Literary Forms
Although court records and other independent records existed beforehand, the definitive work in early Chinese historical writing was the Shi Ji (Records of the Grand Historian), written by the Han Dynasty court historian Sima Qian (about 145—90BC). This groundbreaking text laid the foundation for Chinese historiography and the many official Chinese historical texts compiled for each dynasty thereafter. He is often compared to the Greek Herodotus in scope and method, as he covered Chinese history from the mythical Xia Dynasty up until the contemporary reign of Emperor Wu of Han, while maintaining an objective and non-biased standpoint (which is often difficult for the official dynastic histories who used historical works to justify the reign of the current dynasty). His influence was far and wide and impacted the written works of many Chinese historians, including the works of Ban Gu and Ban Zhao in the 1st and 2nd centuries, or even Sima Guang in the 11th century with his enormous compilation of the Zi Zhi Tong Jian presented to Emperor Shenzong of Song in 1084 AD. The overall scope of the historiographical tradition in China is termed the Twenty-Four Histories, created for each successive Chinese dynasty up until the Ming Dynasty, as China’s last dynasty, the Qing Dynasty, is not included.
Chinese poems originated very early in history. Work songs, prayers in religious ceremonies and songs of romantic love could all be both sung and recited. Ancient myths and legends, the earliest epics, were a great source of the literature of the country. Classic of Poetry was the first written collection of poems in China. It is said that Classic of Poetry was compiled by Confucius, after which came Chu Ci (Poetry of Chu/Songs of the South) a compilation of the works of Qu Yuan and his followers. Qu Yuan’s works significantly influenced Chinese poetry of later ages. Poems in the form of ballads from the Eastern and Western Han Dynasties came after Chu Ci. Poems and ballads of the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties were very popular at that time. In the Tang Dynasty, a more modern style named Lüshi (a classical poem of eight lines) developed very quickly. The Tang poetry became the most colorful chapter of Chinese literature, and hold an important position in the whole history of literature. After the poems of the Tang Dynasty, there came the Ci poetry of the Song Dynasty. Poets of this age were skilled in the use of alternating long and short sentences. In the Yuan Dynasty, the style of poetry changed, and Sanqu (a type of opera with tonal patterns modeled after tunes drawn from folk music) became quite popular.
Chinese prose before the Qin and Han Dynasties was mostly concerned with history and philosophy. Works describing the various schools of thought of the Pre-Qin Period, and related historical accounts have been generally of high quality. Records of the Grand Historian, written by Sima Qian, has been called the outstanding representative of prose of the Han Dynasty. Another scholar of the Han Dynasty, Sima Xiangru, was also a famous man of letters. Prose in the Wei and the Jin dynasties use parallelism liberally, and lay special emphasis on the selection of beautiful words and the forming of symmetrical sentences. The eight prose masters of the Tang and the Song dynasties, and later those of the Ming and the Qing dynasties, all made significant contributions, leaving many famous works for posterity.
Modern Literature and Its Pioneers
In the New Culture Movement (1915—1923), literary writing style was largely replaced by the vernacular in all areas of literature. This was brought about mainly by Lu Xun—China’s first major stylist in vernacular prose (other than novel), and the literary reformers Hu Shi and Chen Duxiu.
The late 1920s and 1930s were years of creativity in Chinese fiction, and literary journals and societies espousing various artistic theories proliferated. Among the major writers of the period were Guo Moruo, a poet, historian, essayist, and critic; Mao Dun, the first of the novelists to emerge from the League of Left-Wing Writers and one whose work reflected the revolutionary struggle and disillusionment of the late 1920s; Ba Jin, a novelist whose work was influenced by Ivan Turgenev and other Russian writers. In the 1930s Ba Jin produced a trilogy that depicted the struggle of modern youth against the age-old dominance of the feudal family system. Comparison often is made between Jia (Family), one of the novels in the trilogy, and Dream of the Red Chamber. Another writer of the period was the gifted satirist and novelist Lao She. With the emancipation of people’s minds, there appeared many other famous writers in the literary history of China.
Notable Classical Literary Works
- Liao Zhai Zhi Yi (Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio)
- Jin Ping Mei (Plum in the Golden Vase)
- Feng Shen Yan Yi (Investiture of the Gods)
- Ru Lin Wai Shi (The Scholars)
